Eas green bars represent genes whose transcripts were detected at ,103 copies/ml. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean calculated using data from all tested NP samples. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067147.gExpression of Sp Genes in the Human Nasopharynxresults where those obtained with the pspA gene where our PCR studies detected ,13 positive samples while quantitative PCR detected pspA in .90 of NP samples. This may suggest that a sub-population of pneumococci found in a lower density than that required to be detected by PCR (.104 CFU/ml), but detected by qPCR, could be present in some NP samples. This does not exclude the possibility that in samples, in which results from PCR and qPCR were positive, two populations with both low density and high density encoding the same gene could be present. This hypothesis is also supported by the fact that our NP samples contained a high density of pneumococci (.106 CFU/ml), thereby increasing the chance that those samples would contain more than one serotype or even the same serotype of a genetically different strain. The gene lytC, which encodes a lysozyme named LytC [50], was detected in 100 of NP samples and was also the gene with the highest level of expression (.104 copies/ml) of the human nasopharynx. Our findings are consistent with a recent observation that a significant increase in anti-LytC antibodies occurs in healthy adult carriers of the pneumococcus in comparison to carriage negative adults [51]. Pneumococcal challenge also induced increased levels of anti-LytC IgG in serum from carriage negative adults [51]. In vitro studies have demonstrated that the mature form of LytC is anchored to the cell envelope [50], and it has an optimal enzymatic activity at ,30uC, which mimics the temperature in the upper respiratory tract [52]. Recent discoveries have revealed that LytC is one of the most 298690-60-5 cost important proteins of the pneumococcal biofilm matrix [53]. LytC has also been implicated in fratricide (i.e. lysis of non-competent cells by competent ones) which has been proposed as a mechanism for predation that contributes to virulence by regulating the release of several virulence factors [54,55]. Overall, our studies and those mentioned above suggest that LytC is important for the pneumococcus to persist in its human host; however whether LytC is also implicated in pneumococcal disease remains to be investigated. Our studies also demonstrate a low level of expression of the pspA gene. Carriage studies in human volunteers inoculated withS. pneumoniae strains detected antibodies anti-PspA, indicating that PspA is produced during colonization and/or carriage [51,56,57]. This also may indicate that PspA is highly immunogenic since low expression in the human nasopharynx might be enough to stimulate a strong immune response. Another virulence factor that has been associated with antibody production during carriage in children and adults and is an important vaccine candidate is the pneumolysin Ply [51,58,59]. Although when purified, Ply may recapitulate lung damage induced by the pneumococcus [60], its role in NP carriage or during biofilm-related otitis media has not yet been fully characterized. Its level of expression in the nasopharynx CP21 correlates with a role of Ply in pneumococcal biofilm formation (Shak et al. 2013, unpublished) and production of antiPly antibodies in healthy carriers and those experiencing otitis media [58,59,61]. In summary, these studies have demonstrated level.Eas green bars represent genes whose transcripts were detected at ,103 copies/ml. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean calculated using data from all tested NP samples. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0067147.gExpression of Sp Genes in the Human Nasopharynxresults where those obtained with the pspA gene where our PCR studies detected ,13 positive samples while quantitative PCR detected pspA in .90 of NP samples. This may suggest that a sub-population of pneumococci found in a lower density than that required to be detected by PCR (.104 CFU/ml), but detected by qPCR, could be present in some NP samples. This does not exclude the possibility that in samples, in which results from PCR and qPCR were positive, two populations with both low density and high density encoding the same gene could be present. This hypothesis is also supported by the fact that our NP samples contained a high density of pneumococci (.106 CFU/ml), thereby increasing the chance that those samples would contain more than one serotype or even the same serotype of a genetically different strain. The gene lytC, which encodes a lysozyme named LytC [50], was detected in 100 of NP samples and was also the gene with the highest level of expression (.104 copies/ml) of the human nasopharynx. Our findings are consistent with a recent observation that a significant increase in anti-LytC antibodies occurs in healthy adult carriers of the pneumococcus in comparison to carriage negative adults [51]. Pneumococcal challenge also induced increased levels of anti-LytC IgG in serum from carriage negative adults [51]. In vitro studies have demonstrated that the mature form of LytC is anchored to the cell envelope [50], and it has an optimal enzymatic activity at ,30uC, which mimics the temperature in the upper respiratory tract [52]. Recent discoveries have revealed that LytC is one of the most important proteins of the pneumococcal biofilm matrix [53]. LytC has also been implicated in fratricide (i.e. lysis of non-competent cells by competent ones) which has been proposed as a mechanism for predation that contributes to virulence by regulating the release of several virulence factors [54,55]. Overall, our studies and those mentioned above suggest that LytC is important for the pneumococcus to persist in its human host; however whether LytC is also implicated in pneumococcal disease remains to be investigated. Our studies also demonstrate a low level of expression of the pspA gene. Carriage studies in human volunteers inoculated withS. pneumoniae strains detected antibodies anti-PspA, indicating that PspA is produced during colonization and/or carriage [51,56,57]. This also may indicate that PspA is highly immunogenic since low expression in the human nasopharynx might be enough to stimulate a strong immune response. Another virulence factor that has been associated with antibody production during carriage in children and adults and is an important vaccine candidate is the pneumolysin Ply [51,58,59]. Although when purified, Ply may recapitulate lung damage induced by the pneumococcus [60], its role in NP carriage or during biofilm-related otitis media has not yet been fully characterized. Its level of expression in the nasopharynx correlates with a role of Ply in pneumococcal biofilm formation (Shak et al. 2013, unpublished) and production of antiPly antibodies in healthy carriers and those experiencing otitis media [58,59,61]. In summary, these studies have demonstrated level.
