N was supported by these results, the correlations between the Bricks measures and the other cognitive measures examined were only moderate, both phenotypically and genetically (Supplementary Tables S5 and S28), despite the probable inclusion of some spatial elements within the non-verbal cognitive measure itself (Methods). This certainly supports the existence of spatial ability as a distinct cognitive domain in its own right. As noted above, the structure of this distinct spatial domain is hotly contested, and seemingly always growing in its apparent size and complexity. Where previous findings have suggested meaningful dissociations between visualisation and mental rotation, though, and between 2D and 3D stimuli, the present study suggests that it is possible to shrink it, too.DiscussionScientific RepoRts | 6:30545 | DOI: 10.1038/srepwww.nature.com/scientificreports/The Bricks battery comprises six subtests of nine items each (12 items of each type were actually administered, so that the nine psychometrically best-performing items could be selected to form the final battery). Each item consisted of a target stimulus image depicting a 2D or 3D object (a “brick”), and four multiple-choice response images, one of which (the correct answer) showed the same object as the target, following an appropriate manipulation. Correct answers were summed to create subtest scores, from which composite scores were derived as described in Results. BFA msds participants completed the subtests in the following sequence. i) 2D Rotation: the 2D target object is rotated in the picture plane. ii) 2D Rotation/Visualisation combined: the rotating target is partially TAPI-2 web obscured behind an (immobile) occluding shape. iii) 2D Visualisation: the target remains static while the occluding shape changes location. iv) 3D Rotation/Visualisation combined: the object rotates freely in three dimensions. v) 3D Rotation: the 3D object rotates only in the picture plane. vi) 3D Visualisation: the target is a wireframe diagram, and the correct response is the “solid” object depicted. Examples of stimuli (targets and correct responses) are presented in Fig. 1, and these measures are described in greater detail in the Supplementary Methods online. Two other cognitive measures were also available for this sample. The Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale25 was used as an index of verbal ability: across 33 trials, participants selected which of six multiple-choice options was closest in meaning to a target word. Non-verbal ability was assessed with Raven’s Progressive Matrices26, in which participants selected which of eight options completed a visual pattern, across 30 trials. Correct responses for each measure were summed and standardised, and the mean of these scores was used as a proxy of general cognitive ability (g). Participants completed these measures four years earlier than the Bricks battery, but since the genetic influences on g are highly stable over time28,29, this is unlikely to have influenced results. Where these measures were used as a control for domain-general cognitive processes, it should be noted that the verbal ability measure is probably an under-correction (as verbal ability is only a portion of g22), and that the non-verbal ability measure is in all likelihood an over-correction, as Raven’s Progressive Matrices have a substantial spatial component30. Participants were contacted by post, but participated online via the TEDS websites. The measures administered at age 16 were im.N was supported by these results, the correlations between the Bricks measures and the other cognitive measures examined were only moderate, both phenotypically and genetically (Supplementary Tables S5 and S28), despite the probable inclusion of some spatial elements within the non-verbal cognitive measure itself (Methods). This certainly supports the existence of spatial ability as a distinct cognitive domain in its own right. As noted above, the structure of this distinct spatial domain is hotly contested, and seemingly always growing in its apparent size and complexity. Where previous findings have suggested meaningful dissociations between visualisation and mental rotation, though, and between 2D and 3D stimuli, the present study suggests that it is possible to shrink it, too.DiscussionScientific RepoRts | 6:30545 | DOI: 10.1038/srepwww.nature.com/scientificreports/The Bricks battery comprises six subtests of nine items each (12 items of each type were actually administered, so that the nine psychometrically best-performing items could be selected to form the final battery). Each item consisted of a target stimulus image depicting a 2D or 3D object (a “brick”), and four multiple-choice response images, one of which (the correct answer) showed the same object as the target, following an appropriate manipulation. Correct answers were summed to create subtest scores, from which composite scores were derived as described in Results. Participants completed the subtests in the following sequence. i) 2D Rotation: the 2D target object is rotated in the picture plane. ii) 2D Rotation/Visualisation combined: the rotating target is partially obscured behind an (immobile) occluding shape. iii) 2D Visualisation: the target remains static while the occluding shape changes location. iv) 3D Rotation/Visualisation combined: the object rotates freely in three dimensions. v) 3D Rotation: the 3D object rotates only in the picture plane. vi) 3D Visualisation: the target is a wireframe diagram, and the correct response is the “solid” object depicted. Examples of stimuli (targets and correct responses) are presented in Fig. 1, and these measures are described in greater detail in the Supplementary Methods online. Two other cognitive measures were also available for this sample. The Mill Hill Vocabulary Scale25 was used as an index of verbal ability: across 33 trials, participants selected which of six multiple-choice options was closest in meaning to a target word. Non-verbal ability was assessed with Raven’s Progressive Matrices26, in which participants selected which of eight options completed a visual pattern, across 30 trials. Correct responses for each measure were summed and standardised, and the mean of these scores was used as a proxy of general cognitive ability (g). Participants completed these measures four years earlier than the Bricks battery, but since the genetic influences on g are highly stable over time28,29, this is unlikely to have influenced results. Where these measures were used as a control for domain-general cognitive processes, it should be noted that the verbal ability measure is probably an under-correction (as verbal ability is only a portion of g22), and that the non-verbal ability measure is in all likelihood an over-correction, as Raven’s Progressive Matrices have a substantial spatial component30. Participants were contacted by post, but participated online via the TEDS websites. The measures administered at age 16 were im.
