Ases dopamine levels in the female amygdala, raising it to malelike
Ases dopamine levels inside the female amygdala, raising it to malelike levels (Siddiqui Shah, 1997). Moreover, progesterone increases BLA dopamine levels in male rodents (de Souza Silva et al., 2008), suggesting that BLA SSTR4 Activator drug dopaminergic function may possibly be affected by the estrous cycle. The Effects of Stress–Despite male rodents obtaining greater basal dopamine levels, the BLA dopaminergic system in females is much more sensitive to anxiety. Tension generally increases extracellular dopamine levels inside the BLA; but, like other end-points, that is stressor-specific. Predator odor and tail pinch tension improve dopamine in each sexes (Sullivan et al., 2009b), whereas restraint strain doubles extracellular dopamine levels in female rats but has no impact in males (Mitsushima et al., 2006). Stress may also alter dopamine receptor expression. Unpredictable chronic mild stress affects BLA D5 expression in opposite directions across sex, escalating expression in female mice and decreasing expression in males (Barko et al., 2019). Similarly, parental separation increases D1 receptor density in female rodents (Ziabreva et al., 2003). These female-specific increases in D1/D5 expression could boost D1/D5-mediated neuromodulation, escalating pyramidal neuron excitability or suppressing LPC interneuron excitability, and thus preferentially initiate dopamine-mediated stress responses in females. Interestingly, the stress responses of BLA dopamine also have a TLR7 Antagonist web lateralization bias that is sex-specific. In male rats, predator odor and tail pinch strain preferentially enhance dopamine release inside the proper BLA when compared with the left (Sullivan et al., 2009b). Conversely, dopamine depletion inside the ideal amygdala is anxiolytic in male rats (Sullivan et al., 2009a). These findings are consistent with stress-responsive brain regions in the ideal hemisphere driving anxiety behaviors (Sullivan Gratton, 1999) and aversive mastering (Coleman-Mesches McGaugh, 1995) far more so than the left hemisphere in males. In contrast, in female rats, predator odor and tail pinch tension induce greater dopamine release inside the left BLA in comparison to the proper (Sullivan et al., 2009b), suggesting that stress-induced dopaminergic signaling in the left BLA might govern anxiety responses in females. Sex-specific lateralization biases are also observed in other brain regions. In the cortex, for example, gonadectomies can reverse right- and left-biased lateralizations characteristic of males and females, respectively (Wisniewski, 1998). This indicates that the organizational effects ofAuthor Manuscript Author Manuscript Author Manuscript Author ManuscriptAlcohol. Author manuscript; out there in PMC 2022 February 01.Value and McCoolPagesex hormones are critical for establishing lateralization biases, and for that reason could direct how strain modulates dopaminergic signaling in the BLA and its ultimate effect on behavior. Serotonin Serotonergic transmission in the BLA has been implicated in anxiousness and worry conditioning (Inoue et al., 2004; Kitaichi et al., 2014; Li et al., 2006; Wang et al., 2019). Serotonergic inputs towards the BLA originate primarily from the dorsal raphe nucleus. Released serotonin (5-HT) binds to a multitude of 5-HT receptor subtypes that are expressed within distinct cell kinds and differentially have an effect on BLA neurophysiology. Altogether, serotonin signaling decreases BLA principal neuron excitability, corresponding to impaired fear conditioning (Inoue et al., 2004; Kitaichi et al., 2014; Li et a.
